How fat can be beautiful?
The body of individuals, both females and males, there is a flat structure, but presents shapes and volumes that are marked precisely because there are other areas that are at different levels.
Thus, the prototype of sexy woman is a woman in which he outlines the breast and buttock areas, very sensual, as well it has a slim silhouette at the abdomen and waist.

Similarly, in men want to emphasize more the pectoral and gluteal area when, in addition to the muscular component of the area are clean the areas that enclose. Hence the concept of liposuction, to the extent that there is carried out the extraction of the fat that protrudes but even this can be used to provide consistency and volume to areas that are deficient.

When is it useful?
The procedure, but find a decrease in volume, is not indicated for the treatment of obesities, as its main indication areas are resistant to diet and exercise, but sometimes treatment is combined with diet to help them. The most requested are:
* Holsters, including the treatment of trochanteric and subglúteo areas.
* The wide waist, buttocks usually associated with empty, in which the fat extracted and prepared can be used to fill in the buttock.
* The inside of the thighs, which is annoying unsightly addition to the phenomena of friction, knees and ankles.
* Also can lipoesculpirse arms, back, abdomen, perimamarias areas, etc.

Benefits for other areas
Face also benefit from technical, to the extent that can be filled with fat from other areas, cheeks, nasolabial folds, lips, temples or temporal areas, chin, nose defects rinoremodelación small, depressed scars, muscle atrophy , etc.

In those who are very thin, you want to raise any particular area and not enough fat deposits we can use very effective synthetic products such as hyaluronic acid type Macrolane.

The procedures are performed under local anesthesia, sedation, epidural, or general, depending on the extent of the procedure. Rest does not require more than one day.
We use safe and innovative techniques.

In the chapter of the apparatus, it is noteworthy that not a substitute for liposuction. Serve to reaffirm, to drain and even liquefy very small areas of fat, but this procedure is to actually get eliminated.
We use the method of liposuction with vibration, reinforced in consultation with carboxiterapia and lymphatic drainage, it is with which we obtain better results and quicker recovery.

Pregnancy after age 50 increases the risk of mortality from both the fetus and the mother and the prevalence and incidence of conditions that may worsen with pregnancy and childbirth pose hazards.

This fact reopens the question of whether to establish an age limit on assisted reproduction techniques that have made ​​ever more frequent cases of older mothers, the last, a Dutch woman of 63 years has given birth to a girl. pathologies such as hypertension or diabetes are more common as compliance years, today explained Dr. Nicholas Mendoza, a member of the Board of the Spanish Association for the Study of Menopause (EMEA).

These affectations, whose risk of suffering is accentuated with the arrival of menopause worsen the health of the mother and fetus, which also joined other more common at this age, such as placental abruption or fetal growth restriction, “make pregnancy is considered high risk. ” L It is estimated that a woman’s fertile age ends around 47-50 years, although from 35 spontaneous fertility rate drops quickly to levels 5% and this means that, at 40, the sterility is of about 65-70%.

Difficulties
“Like any other variable care, these data fluctuate from person to person and thus be women who have great difficulties for 38 years while others may need contraception until the age of menopause, “the doctor clarified. Mendoza recalled that the woman is born with a fixed number of eggs, but as the years go by decreases both the number of oocytes and their quality, which means that the pregnancy is less frequent and early abortions more common.
However, after 40 if the woman after three or six months looking for the pregnancy fails, it’s time to start a study and possibly consider assisted reproductive techniques. In this sense, from this age the recommended technique is in vitro fertilization.

In recent years there has been a significant delay in childbearing, from those of 22-23 years to 32-33, the age at which the woman has her first child, which leads you could wish to become pregnant in the decade of the 40. It is increasingly common for this situation to occur in industrialized countries, has concluded Polo, by socioeconomic factors such as the incorporation of women into the labor market, extending the training period beyond the university or the simple fact that every time you decide later to become a couple and formalize a relationship.

Ask your doctor about possible risk factors for breast cancer presenting your case. You may be able to take steps to reduce the risk of breast cancer, and your doctor can help you devise a plan for that purpose. Your doctor, meanwhile, should be aware of any other risk factors you can not manage to fully understand the level of risk you present. This allows you to make recommendations on screening tests for the disease: what tests you should get and when you should start with them.

Risk factors you can control
Weight. Being overweight is a risk of breast cancer, especially postmenopausal women. Fat tissue is the main source of estrogen that has the body after menopause when the ovaries stop producing the hormone. A greater amount of fat tissue implies a higher level of estrogen, which may increase the risk of breast cancer.

Diet. Diet is reportedly a risk factor for many cancers, including breast cancer, but has not yet been determined with certainty what types of foods increase the risk. A good start might be to avoid red meat and other animal fats (including milk-fat cheese, milk and ice cream) because they may contain hormones, growth factors, antibiotics and pesticides. Some researchers believe that eating too much cholesterol and other fats is a risk factor, and some studies indicate that eating red meat or processed in excess carries a high risk of breast cancer. The most recommended is eating a diet low in fat and rich in fruits and vegetables. For more information, visit our page on healthy eating to reduce cancer risk * Nutrition section.

Exercise. More and more evidence that exercise helps reduce the risk of breast cancer. The American Cancer Society recommends exercising 45 to 60 minutes at least 5 days a week.

Alcohol consumption. Some studies showed that the risk of breast cancer increases with the amount of alcohol consumed by a woman. Alcohol can affect renal function of control over blood estrogen levels, which may increase the risk.

Smoking. Smoking usually means a slight increase in risk of breast cancer.

Exposure to estrogen. Because estrogen in women stimulates the growth of mammary cells, exposure to the hormone for extended periods of uninterrupted may increase the risk of forming breast cancer. You can control some of these risk factors, including:

the use of combined HRT (estrogen and progesterone HRT) for several years, or the use of estrogen alone for more than 10 years
overweight
regular alcohol consumption
Recent use of oral contraceptives. The use of oral contraceptives (birth control) seems to slightly increase the risk of developing breast cancer, but only for a limited period. Women who have stopped using oral contraceptives for more than 10 years does not appear to be at higher risk of developing breast cancer.

Stress and anxiety. No clear evidence indicating that stress and anxiety can increase the risk of breast cancer. However, everything you do to reduce stress and improve your wellbeing, your mood and your level of satisfaction can significantly affect your quality of life. The so-called “exercises of consciousness” (such as meditation, yoga, visualization exercises and prayers) can contribute much to your daily or weekly routine. Some researchers believe that these practices strengthen the immune system.

Risk factors you can not control
Sex. Being a woman is the biggest risk factor for breast cancer is formed. While men can develop the disease, the breast cells of women grow and change constantly, mainly due to the activity of the female hormones estrogen and progesterone. This activity greatly increases the risk of breast cancer.

Age. Aging is the second most important risk factor. At ages 30 to 39 years, the risk is 1 in 233, ie 0.43%. After 60 years, the risk becomes 1 in 27, ie 4%.

Family history of breast cancer. If you have a direct line family (mother, daughter, sister) who has been diagnosed with breast cancer or have several relatives who have had breast or ovarian cancer (especially before age 50), could be at increased risk of developing the disease.

Personal history of breast cancer. If you already have breast cancer diagnosed in the past, you have the risk of recurrence, either in the same breast or the other, is greater than if you had never had the disease.

Race. White women are slightly more likely to develop breast cancer than African American women. Asian women, Latino, and Native Americans have a lower risk of developing breast cancer and dying from it.

Radiation therapy to the chest. receive radiation therapy to the chest area at an early age (childhood or adolescence) as treatment for another cancer significantly increases the risk of breast cancer from forming. The greatest risk occurs when radiation is applied during the stage of breast development (during adolescence).

Alterations in mammary cells. Any alteration atypical breast cells is detected in a biopsy (removal of suspicious tissue is examined under a microscope) may be a risk factor. These changes include the proliferation of cells (called hyperplasia) and appearance abnormal (atypical) cells.

Exposure to estrogen. Because estrogen in women stimulates the growth of mammary cells, exposure to the hormone for extended periods of uninterrupted may increase the risk of forming breast cancer. Some of these risk factors can not be controlled, including:

begin to menstruate (monthly periods) at an early age (before age 12)
enter menopause (end of menstrual cycles) in old age (after age 55)
exposure to estrogens in the environment (for example, hormones in meat and pesticides such as DDT, which produce estrogen-like substances when they are absorbed by the body)
Pregnancy and lactation. Pregnancy and lactation reduce the total amount of menstrual cycles in the life of a woman, and this seems to reduce the risk of breast cancer in the future. Women who have never had a pregnancy to term or who have had their first full term pregnancy after age 30 have an increased risk of developing breast cancer. For women who have children, breast-feeding may slightly reduce the risk of breast cancer, especially if they continue breastfeeding for 1 year and a half to 2 years. For many women, however, breastfeeding for so long is not feasible or practical.

DES exposure. Women who received a drug called diethylstilbestrol (DES), which was used between the 1940s and 1960s to prevent spontaneous abortions have a higher risk of developing just breast cancer. The women whose mothers took DES during pregnancy may also have an increased risk of developing the disease.

Many breast cancers occur in women without apparent risk factors and no family history of breast cancer. This means that all women should be alert to possible changes in the breasts and talk to your doctor for regular clinical breast exams (breast exam by a physician) and mammograms (breast x-rays can detect a tumor too small to be felt). It is likely that more than one risk factor to influence the development of breast cancer.

The following factors may raise a woman’s risk of developing breast cancer:

Age. The risk of developing breast cancer increases as women age and, in most cases the disease develops in women over 50 years.

Personal history of breast cancer. A woman who has had breast cancer in one breast has a probability of 1% to 2% per year of developing a second breast cancer in the other.

Family history of breast cancer. Women who have a first degree relative (mother, sister, daughter) that has been diagnosed with breast cancer are at increased risk for the disease. Having more than one first degree relative with breast cancer risk increases even more, especially if it is diagnosed at an early age, because this could indicate heritable genetic changes (see information below). Women who have a second-degree relative (aunt, niece, grandmother, granddaughter) who has been diagnosed with breast cancer also have a higher risk of developing breast cancer. In evaluating family history, you should also consider the father’s side (paternal) family, the same way that the side of the mother (maternal). For example, you may be at greater risk if the mother’s sister or his father had cancer.

Genetic predisposition. Mutations in genes 1 or 2 breast cancer ( BRCA1 or BRCA2 ) are associated with increased risk of developing breast or ovarian cancer. There are blood tests ( genetic tests , in English) to detect the known mutations to these genes, but not recommended them to everyone and take place only after the person has received appropriate genetic counseling (in English). The men of the family may also have mutations in these genes. The cases of breast or ovarian cancer in the paternal side of the family significantly increase the risk of breast or ovarian cancer hereditary (in English). Researchers estimate that BRCA1 , the BRCA2 and other genes associated with risk of breast cancer account for 5% to 10% of all breast cancers. If a woman knows she has one of these genetic mutations may follow certain steps to reduce the risk of breast and ovarian cancer. Learn more about the genetics of breast cancer (in English).

Personal history of ovarian cancer. The history of ovarian cancer can increase a woman’s risk of developing breast cancer. Mutations in the breast cancer genes such as BRCA1 or BRCA2 , can significantly increase the risk of ovarian and breast (in English).

Exposure to estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen and progesterone are female hormones that control the development of secondary sex characteristics (such as breast development) and pregnancy. The production of estrogen and progesterone decreases at menopause. Prolonged exposure to these hormones increases the risk of breast cancer.

Women who begin menstruating before age 11 or age 12 or went through menopause after age 55 have increased risk of breast cancer because breast cells are exposed to estrogen and progesterone for a longer time.

Women who had their first pregnancy after age 35 or who never had a pregnancy to term are at increased risk of breast cancer. Pregnancy can act as protection against breast cancer because it pushes breast cells into the last stage of maturation. Breastfeeding may also help reduce the risk of breast cancer.
Hormone replacement therapy after menopause. Recent use (within the last 5 years) and long-term use (several years or more) of hormone replacement therapy (postmenopausal) increase the risk of a woman suffering from cancer breast. In fact, the number of newly diagnosed breast cancer has been reduced by the lower number of women receiving hormone replacement therapy.

Oral contraceptives (birth control pills). Some studies suggest that oral contraceptives slightly increase the risk of breast cancer, while others have shown no relationship between oral contraceptive use and breast cancer development. This topic is still under investigation.

Race and Ethnicity. While white women are more likely to develop breast cancer, black women are more likely to die from the disease. Still unclear reasons for the differences in survival and probably involve both socioeconomic and biological factors. Women of Ashkenazi Jewish heritage are also at higher risk of developing breast cancer due to mutations of BRCA .

Atypical hyperplasia of the breast. This alteration increases the risk of breast cancer and is characterized by the presence of abnormal cells, but not cancer, who are in a breast biopsy.

LCIS. As explained in Section Overview , this classification of cancer refers to abnormal cells in the lobules or mammary glands. LCIS ​​increases the risk of developing invasive breast cancer (cancer that spreads to surrounding tissues). If LCIS is found, it may Excise to look at other possible changes. Ask your doctor about the best way to control this disease.

Lifestyle factors. As with other types of cancer, studies continue to show that various lifestyle factors may contribute to breast cancer.

Recent studies have shown that obese postmenopausal women at increased risk of breast cancer.

Lack of exercise can increase the risk of developing breast cancer because exercise lowers levels of hormones, alters the metabolism and improves the immune system. Increased physical activity is associated with a lower risk of developing breast cancer.

Drinking more than two alcoholic drinks (including beer, wine and liquor) per day increases the risk of breast cancer.
Radiation. High doses of ionizing radiation (eg X-rays or from tanning booths) can increase a woman’s risk of developing breast cancer. However, the minimum amount of radiation a woman receives during annual mammography has not been associated with an increased risk of developing breast cancer.

Breast density dense breast tumors may be more difficult to detect on mammography. However, researchers are also evaluating whether breast density increases the risk of developing breast cancer.

It is estimated that the thyroid of the pregnant woman produces between 30 and 50 percent more thyroxine than normal. To maintain the level of free T4-stabilized blood must increase its rate of production, and also the mother to the fetus transferred a portion of their hormones, sufficient to maintain normal development, if the fetus had problems with your thyroid.

Why stimulates the thyroid in pregnancy
The major stimulus of the thyroid in pregnant women is due to the influence of a number of specific factors:

1. Chorionic gonadotropin. It is the quintessential pregnancy hormone and is produced in the placenta. Detected in blood or urine of the mother and is the basis of pregnancy tests. Influences the stimulation of the thyroid, especially during the first quarter. Production begins immediately after conception, at 2 or 3 days and the effects on the pregnant woman’s body are very much like TSH. The chorionic gonadotropin acts as a stimulant for the thyroid. Approximately 18 percent of pregnant women have during the first quarter a slight stimulation of the thyroid that goes unnoticed among the other pregnant women feel discomfort.

During the first quarter, you can register a slight rise in T4 and TSH stagnation, which is normal and should not be confused with hyperthyroidism. In the known false hyperthyroidism in the first trimester of pregnancy, there is an increase of thyroid hormones in blood and inhibition of TSH, thyroid antibodies you are normal and, above all, the ultrasound is normal. In the second and third quarter down chorionic gonadotropin levels and the picture tends to subside.

In the true hyperthyroidism , there is increased vascularity in the thyroid that is seen in the Doppler echo-color study. In the false hyperthyroidism, thyroid ultrasound is normal.

2. Estrogen. In the second and third quarters also are factors that alter thyroid function. Themselves may be involved female hormones, primarily the estrogen. Thyroid hormones circulate in blood bound to a protein called TBG (Tiroxin Bindig globulin Globulin or thyroxine or Conveyor), and pregnancy TBG figures soar. Between 16 and 20 weeks of gestation, the number of TBG in the blood doubles. In these circumstances, the levels of T4 and T3 in blood are altered and may give the false impression of functional impairment, but if the Free T4 is unchanged and remains normal does not exist hypothyroidism in pregnancy.

In pregnancy, the mother’s thyroid can grow a little. This growth is registered by ultrasound and only occurs in 10-15 percent of cases. This slight increase in size returns to its original state after delivery.

This study identified that patients who had a higher incidence of breast cancer between 35 and 45, were those whose onset of menarche occurred between 9 and 12.
Additionally it was identified that are more likely to develop breast cancer in those women between 55 and 65. Besides, presented signs of breast cancer for women who used oral contraceptives at some time were exposed to ionizing radiation, with frequent alcohol consumption and lack of a balanced diet. In Venezuela Breast cancer is one of the three diseases that causes the most deaths. Studies in this country in 1999, it was determined that one of every 33 women will get breast cancer during their lifetime.

Dr. Gonzalo Silva, Chile, conducted a study in 1994 which identified that the death rate from breast cancer has increased in that country during the past 30 years, from 7.5 deaths per 100000 to 12, 1 deaths per 100,000, increasing the mortality rate also. Additionally, in 1997, during a screening of breast cancer was detected that 18.5% of patients in a sample of 1000 women reported breast cancer, acupando the second cause of death among women.
In 2000, a Chilean research team identified that are major risk factors for women to maintain a diet high in fat and calories and obesity. a recommendation to prevent breast cancer, researchers suggest a diet high in carotene, vegetables, fruits, carbohydrates and olive oil, also showed lower levels of risk are women with more children and adequate physical activity . Chile also determined through a study who have had breast cancer 12.5% ​​of patients with early menarche and 5.2% of patients with family history.

But doctors Lujan and Rodriguez conducted a study with a sample of 162 women in Mexico and found no association between early menarche and breast cancer.

Also enhances the action of linoleic acid in the body and is necessary for the correct synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Pyridoxine plays an important role as a coenzyme in the oxidation and utilization of carbohydrates (especially in the release of glycogen from the liver and muscles into the blood for use as fuel), fats and proteins, in addition, its presence is necessary for antibody production and red cells.

In turn, vitamin B6 is important for maintaining water balance of the body as it levels the concentrations of sodium and potassium, which are salts that retain and expel water in the body .

The maintenance of body fluid balance is very important for the normal functioning of the nervous and musculoskeletal.

Sources of Vitamin B6
In terms of sourcing of the most important B6 are meat, chicken and turkey and whole grains . Also in potatoes, bananas, melon. The following fish are good sources of vitamin B6: mackerel, salmon, trout and tuna.

It is recommended as supplementary sources dried liver and yeast.

Absorption and storage

Water-soluble vitamins, such as the B6 and other B complex vitamins can not be stored in the liver and excreted through the urine after 8 hours of being ingested. For this reason, we need supplements these vitamins daily. Due to the great importance of these compounds must be extremely careful if you are performing a reducing diet, consuming supplements of B vitamins

Dosage and Toxicity

Vitamin B6 can cause an imbalance or deficiency of other B vitamins when given alone. The recommended amount of vitamin B6 is 2 mg per day. Keep in mind that the required dose of vitamin B6 increases during pregnancy, lactation, radiation exposure, and heart problems when using oral contraceptives.

An oral dose of 100 to 300 milligrams neuritis serves to relieve side effects were not observed. However, high doses and prolonged vitamin B6 can cause nerve damage in some people.

As this vitamin is involved in the production of hydrochloric acid, the people with stomach ulcers should consult a doctor before taking high doses of B6 .

Deficiencies and symptoms

In cases of B6 deficiency is less sugar in the blood and reduced glucose tolerance, resulting in insulin sensitization .

The effects of vitamin B6 include: hair loss, water retention during pregnancy, cracking around the mouth and eyes, numbness in the arms and legs, learning difficulties, eye problems, neuritis, arthritis, heart problems and nervous. Also, some people suffer from a metabolic disorder caused by a genetic dependence to the B6

In cases where the deficiency of vitamin B6 continues during pregnancy can cause stillbirth or birth of delays in delivery. Children of mothers with vitamin B6 deficiency can have seizures at birth. On the other hand, some studies have shown that pregnant women retain more B6 than non-pregnant, so they need larger doses of this vitamin to ensure that the fetus receives adequate amounts.

Moreover, the criptopirrol, compound present in high amounts in the urine of schizophrenics, it seems to “trap” resulting in pyridoxine deficiency of vitamin B6. Some of these patients come to need dose 250-3000 mg of vitamin B6 per day to carry the normal metabolic functions. Importantly, treatment in these cases must be accompanied with zinc, and certain amounts of manganese and niacin may also be necessary.

The symptoms of B6 deficiency are similar to those of niacin and riboflavin deficiency include: muscle weakness, nervousness, irritability, depression, dermatitis, tingling in hands, shoulder-hand syndrome (neuromuscular disorder characterized by pain and stiffness of the shoulder and arm), carpal tunnel and arthritis associated with menopause.

Beneficial effects in the treatment of some diseases

There is evidence suggesting a link between vitamin B6 and cholesterol metabolism, therefore, vitamin B6 may be involved in controlling cholesterol levels and thus atherosclerosis itself. In turn, vitamin B6 has been used in the treatment of nervous disorders and control of nausea during pregnancy, to help in the treatment of male sexual disorders, control of diarrhea, hemorrhoids, pancreatitis, muscle weakness, some types of kidney stones, acne, tooth loss, diabetes and stress in the latter case, treatment should be accompanied with zinc. This vitamin is necessary for the prevention and treatment of shoulder-hand syndrome.

Due to its characteristics of natural diuretic, vitamin B6 helps in preventing water retention in tissues. It also helps women suffering from premenstrual temporary changes, such as edema, and may be effective in solving weight problems caused by water retention. Moreover, the daily intake of vitamin B6 reduces pain and size of the knots that occur in the joints of the hands in women during menopause. Finally, another beneficial effect of intake of the vitamin is in the treatment of individuals particularly sensitive.

There are several thyroid-related abnormalities that affect a large proportion of the population but, above all, there are two types of irregularities in the thyroid influences most to the women, hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism.

Hyperthyroidism is a result of enlargement of the thyroid gland due to excessive secretion of TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone, or stimulation of the thyroid by TSI, antibodies that bind to the same receptors that would TSH. As a consequence, the thyroid receives an excessive stimulation causes hyperthyroidism. There are different symptoms of hyperthyroidism that are easy to recognize: weight loss, muscle aches, bright eyes, fatigue, etc.. Within the muscular system deficiencies caused by this failure predominate glandular excitement, nervousness, hyperactivity, irritability, insomnia, distal tremor, hyperreflexia, restlessness, anxiety, affects susceptibility facts are not important, want to mourn, changes character … Also, there are also other symptoms such as sweating, heat intolerance, diarrhea, irritability, tachycardia and palpitations. Occasionally breathlessness can occur caused by oxygen consumption and anxiety.

On the other hand, hypothyroidism is caused by the presence of antithyroid antibodies that attack the thyroid and do decrease the production of its hormones. The lack of thyroid hormones produce a general slowing of the metabolism, a decrease in heat generation and a decrease in protein synthesis. Symptoms of hypothyroidism include tiredness or fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, dry skin, drowsiness, slow speech, face and swollen eyelids, muscle cramps, hair loss, memory loss and constipation.

The importance of regular checkups Going beyond 40 years should get a check of the functioning of the thyroid every 5 years or earlier if they have some of the major symptoms, especially in the case of women. Thyroid Patients must undergo a medical control, including the determination of thyroid hormones in blood. Women who wish to conceive or are pregnant should also examine the thyroid because in some conditions can be dangerous for the baby. Interestingly, many women who have had hyperthyroidism hypothyroidism youth have suffered years later.

Antithyroid antibodies and its association with abortion and premature delivery.

Deficiency of thyroid hormones and antithyroid antibodies, and antithyroglobulin and antiperoxidase cause of habitual abortion, being these studies required in following abortion or a woman prone to gestational hypertension. You are studies to establish preventive measures, particularly in susceptible people or high risk for being with family history. The presence of maternal antithyroid antibodies has a close association with abortion and premature delivery levothyroxine time, reduces these risks. Meta-analyzes have highlighted the role of levothyroxine, antithyroid antibodies and their association with infertility, infertility, abortion l and preterm delivery. The presence of maternal antithyroid antibodies has a close association with abortion and premature delivery, levothyroxine reduces these risks.

The miscarriage (pregnancy loss before 24 weeks of gestation) affects 1 in 5 women who conceive, being the most common complication of pregnancy. Preterm birth (birth of a baby in the 24 th and 37 th weeks of gestation) occurs in 6-10% of pregnancies. Up to 85% of neonatal deaths attributable to preterm birth, especially those that occur before 28 weeks. Of the children who survive, about 10% have long-term disability.

There is evidence that thyroid autoimmunity is a risk factor for abortion and premature delivery. The presence of antithyroid antibodies is relatively common in women of reproductive age. In a population of women “selected”, the prevalence ranges from 6% to 20%, even higher in women with a history of recurrent abortions, (17 to 33%) and subfertility (10-31%).

Thyroid autoimmunity is the main cause of hypothyroidism, which in turn is the cause of poor pregnancy outcomes. Even women with Normal thyroid function biochemically, studies have reported an association between the presence of thyroid autoantibodies, particularly thyroid peroxidase antibodies and adverse outcomes of pregnancy, including miscarriage, premature delivery, and adverse effects in neurodevelopmental sequelae in children.

The exact mechanisms of these associations are unknown, although they have been proposed. First, the presence of thyroid autoantibodies in women with normal thyroid function may be associated with a subtle deficiency in the availability of thyroid hormones (a drop in circulating free thyroid hormones within the reference range) or a lower capacity of the thyroid gland to increase adequately to the increased demand for thyroid hormone synthesis required for pregnancy (thyroid reserve).

Given that minor perturbations in the concentrations of thyroxine within the normal range can generate an association between thyroid antibodies and adverse outcomes of pregnancy have been conducted to examine the effects of levothyroxine supplementation of pregnant women with normal thyroid function and positive antithyroid antibodies. Second, the presence of antithyroid antibodies could be an indicator of an underlying global state of autoimmunity, which can have a direct negative effect on placental or fetal development. In women with antithyroid antibodies were found to triple the chances of miscarriage and a doubling of the odds of preterm delivery. Given the high prevalence of antithyroid antibodies in women of reproductive age, this increase in premature births and miscarriages is clinically very important, both individually and in the population. The increased rates of miscarriage in women with antithyroid antibodies could not be explained by confounding factors such as the difference in age. The review of the effectiveness of levothyroxine treatment provided preliminary evidence on their effectiveness in reducing rates of miscarriages and premature births.

Pathogenesis of adverse pregnancy outcome of antithyroid antibodies accompanied the frequent presence of antithyroid antibodies in several autoimmune diseases nonthyroidal supports the hypothesis that the overall immune dysfunction has a major influence on clinical outcomes. There is evidence that non-pregnant women with thyroid antibodies have altered cytokine expression by peripheral T lymphocytes.

Pregnancy is an inflammatory process involving a change in the regulation of cytokine networks in the placenta-decidua environment. The deregulation of the local inflammatory process may be associated with miscarriage and premature labor. The presence of antithyroid antibodies may reflect a generalized activation of the immune system and specifically deregulated activity of the immune system of the maternal-fetal interface.

Thyroid hormones can directly influence the angiogenic growth factors and cytokine production as well in trophoblast proliferation, survival and invasion. Moreover, the presence of thyroid autoantibodies may be a marker of subtle alterations underlying thyroid reserve. A reduced functional reserve of the thyroid gland associated with a lower adaptation to physiological changes of pregnancy may contribute to small changes in circulating thyroid hormone levels even within normal limits.

The increased concentrations of thyroid stimulating hormone in euthyroid women with thyroid antibodies but supports this hypothesis. There were insufficient data to identify the different concentrations of triiodothyronine (T3) in the 2 groups. The authors postulate that treatment with levothyroxine could correct any deficiencies on thyroid hormones and influence both immune regulation in systemic and local placental environment.

The international consensus endocrinological states that women with repeated pregnancy loss and no evidence of a different cause, should receive replacement therapy with levothyroxine if TSH levels are above 2.5 and / or have positive antithyroid antibodies.

Why do thyroid function test?
Helps establish the diagnosis and monitoring of autoimmune thyroid diseases and differentiated from other forms of thyroiditis, to guide therapeutic decision making.

There are several types of gastric bypass procedures, but all involve a degree or bypass of the small intestine. For this reason, these procedures are known as malabsorptive procedures, because they involve food to pass along a portion of the small intestine that absorbs nutrients.

Some of these procedures also involve stapling the stomach division to create a small pouch that serves as “new” stomach or surgically removing part of the stomach.

Although a gastric bypass procedure is malabsorptive, it may also be restrictive because the size of the stomach is reduced so that the amount of food eaten is “restricted” due to the smaller stomach. While malabsorptive procedures are more effective in causing excess weight loss than purely restrictive procedures also carry more risk for nutritional deficiencies.